Consequences of Stress on Children's Development

Impact of Poverty on Children’s Development an Educational Outcomes

 

In all countries, poverty presents a chronic stress for children and families that may interfere with suc­cessful adjustment to developmental tasks, including school achievement. Children raised in low-income families are at risk for academic and social problems as well as poor health and well-being, which can in turn undermine educational achievement.

    USA, the association between poverty and children’s de­velopment and academic performance has been well documented, beginning as early as the second year of life and extending through elementary and high school. When these risks occur during preschool years, they can have long-lasting consequences. For example, readiness for school on entry to kindergarten sets the path for future success. School readiness is critical to later academic achievement because dif­ferences on school entry have long-term consequences.

    Lee and Burkman, found that most American stu­dents who start school significantly behind their peers can never close the readiness gap. Rather, the gap tends to widen as they move through school. “School readi­ness has been shown to be predictive of virtually every educational benchmark (example, achievement test scores, grade retention, special education placement, dropout, etc.). The consequences of early school fail­ure are increased likelihood of absent, drop out, and unhealthy or delinquent behaviors.

    Between 30 and 40% of children entering kindergarten in the United States are estimated to not be ready for school. The link between poverty and low academic achievement has been well established. Low-income children are at increased risk of leaving school with­out graduating, resulting in inflation-adjusted earn­ings in the United States that declined 16% from 1979 to 2005, averaging slightly over $10/hour. Evidence from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network has shown that children in chronically im­poverished families have lower cognitive and academic performance and more behavior problems than chil­dren who are not exposed to poverty, partially ex­plained by a lack of stimulating behaviors and home experiences among low-income families.

    Parenting education and support programs are de­signed to improving the negative effects of poverty on family characteristics, such as lack of responsive stimulation or learning materials, with the goal of im­proving child well-being. These programs have a vari­ety of delivery mechanisms, including a health center or system, home visiting by a trained worker, com­bining counseling with growth monitoring, providing group sessions for parents, and media outreach. Some are directed to children with a particular risk factor, such as prematurity or low–birth weight (LBW).

 

References

The effect of poverty on child development and educational outcomes. Retrieved from

 digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002...fac

Immunization

Immunization coverage

Fact sheet N°378       April 2013

Key facts

• Immunization prevents illness, disability and death from vaccine-preventable diseases including diphtheria, measles, pertussis, pneumonia, polio, rotavirus diarrhea, rubella and tetanus.
• Global vaccination coverage is holding steady.
• Immunization currently averts an estimated 2 to 3 million deaths every year.
• But an estimated 22 million infants worldwide are still missing out on basic vaccines.

Overview

Immunization averts an estimated 2 to 3 million deaths every year from diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (whooping cough), and measles. Global vaccination coverage—the proportion of the world’s children who receive recommended vaccines—has remained steady for the past few years. For example, the percentage of infants fully vaccinated against diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis (DTP3) was 83% in 2011, 84% in 2010 and 83% in 2009.

During 2011, about 107 million infants worldwide got three doses of DTP3 vaccine, protecting them against infectious diseases that can cause serious illness and disability or be fatal. By 2011, 130 countries had reached at least 90% coverage of DTP3.

Current levels of access to recommended vaccines

Haemophilus influenza type b (Hib) causes meningitis and pneumonia. Hib vaccine was introduced in 177 countries by the end of 2011. Global coverage with three doses of Hib vaccine is estimated at 43%.

Hepatitis B is a viral infection that attacks the liver. Hepatitis B vaccine for infants had been introduced nationwide in 180 countries by the end of 2011. Global hepatitis B vaccine coverage is estimated at 75%.

Human papillomavirus — the most common viral infection of the reproductive tract — can cause cervical cancer, and other types of cancer and genital warts in both men and women. Human papillomavirus vaccine was introduced in 43 countries by the end of 2011.

Measles is a highly contagious disease caused by a virus, which usually results in a high fever and rash, and can lead to blindness, encephalitis or death. By the end of 2011, 84% of children had received one dose of measles vaccine by their second birthday, and 141 countries had included a second dose as part of routine immunization.

Meningitis A is an infection that can cause severe brain damage and is often deadly. By the end of 2012—two years after its introduction—the MenAfriVac vaccine, developed by WHO and PATH, was available in 10 of the 26 African countries affected by the disease.

Mumps is a highly contagious virus that causes painful swelling at the side of the face under the ears (the parotid glands), fever, headache and muscle aches. It can lead to viral meningitis. Mumps vaccine had been introduced nationwide in 120 countries by the end of 2011.

Pneumococcal diseases include pneumonia, meningitis and febrile bacteremia, as well as otitis media, sinusitis and bronchitis. Pneumococcal vaccine had been introduced in 72 countries by the end of 2011.

Polio is a highly infectious viral disease that can cause irreversible paralysis. In 2011, 84% of infants around the world received three doses of polio vaccine. Only three countries—Afghanistan, Nigeria and Pakistan—remain polio-endemic.

Rotaviruses are the most common cause of severe diarrhoeal disease in young children throughout the world. Rotavirus vaccine was introduced in 31 countries by the end of 2011.

Rubella is a viral disease which is usually mild in children, but infection during early pregnancy may cause fetal death or congenital rubella syndrome, which can lead to defects of the brain, heart, eyes and ears. Rubella vaccine was introduced nationwide in 130 countries by the end of 2011.

Tetanus is caused by a bacterium which grows in the absence of oxygen, e.g. in dirty wounds or in the umbilical cord if it is not kept clean. It produces a toxin which can cause serious complications or death. The vaccine to prevent maternal and neonatal tetanus had been introduced in over 100 countries by the end of 2011. Vaccination coverage with at least two doses was estimated at 70%, and an estimated 82% of newborns were protected through immunization. Maternal and neonatal tetanus persist as public health problems in 36 countries, mainly in Africa and Asia.

Yellow fever is an acute viral hemorrhagic disease transmitted by infected mosquitoes. As of 2011, yellow fever vaccine had been introduced in routine infant immunization programmers in 36 of the 48 countries and territories at risk for yellow fever in Africa and the Americas.

Key challenges

Despite improvements in global vaccine coverage during the past decade, there continue to be regional and local disparities resulting from:

• limited resources;
• competing health priorities;
• poor management of health systems; and
• inadequate monitoring and supervision.

In 2011, an estimated 22 million infants worldwide were not reached with routine immunization services. About half of them live in three countries: India, Indonesia and Nigeria.

Priority needs to be given to strengthening routine vaccination globally, especially in the countries that are home to the highest number of unvaccinated children. Particular efforts are needed to reach the underserved, especially those in remote areas, in deprived urban settings, in fragile states and strife-torn regions.

WHO response

WHO is working with countries and partners to improve global vaccination coverage, including through these initiatives adopted by the World Health Assembly in May 2012.

The Global Vaccine Action Plan

The Global Vaccine Action Plan (GVAP) is a roadmap to prevent millions of deaths through more equitable access to vaccines. Countries are aiming to achieve vaccination coverage of ≥90% nationally and ≥80% in every district by 2020. While the GVAP should accelerate control of all vaccine-preventable diseases, polio eradication is set as the first milestone. It also aims to spur research and development for the next generation of vaccines.

The plan was developed by multiple stakeholders—UN agencies, governments, global agencies, development partners, health professionals, academics, manufacturers and civil society. WHO is leading efforts to support regions and countries as they adapt the GVAP for implementation.

World Immunization Week

The last week of April each year is marked by WHO and partners as World Immunization Week. In 2013, more than 180 countries, territories and areas are expected to mark the week with activities including vaccination campaigns, training workshops, round-table discussions and public information campaigns. The theme of World Immunization Week is “Protect your world – get vaccinated”. It aims to raise public awareness of how immunization saves lives, encouraging people everywhere to vaccinate themselves and their children against deadly diseases.

Reference

http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs378/en/index.html

Birthing Experiences

My Childbirth Experience

Before the birth of my child I was 2 weeks over due. My doctor had decided to induce labor, but 3 days before he scheduled to have it done, I started having contractions’. My husband drove me to the hospital where I continued to have what I thought was labor pains for about two hours after entering the hospital. I was thinking this baby need to come on out. Unfortunately my doctor had to perform a cesarean section. After receiving a needle in my back I didn’t remember anything. All I know is when I awoke I was in a lot of pain. Later the nurse brought my baby girl to me, she was in good health, but I was hurting. My daughter and I stay in the hospital 2 days.

Chinese Childbirth

 Chinese woman may be perceived as needing extra attention in terms of food and rituals during pregnancy and the postpartum period, Women are advised not to eat "cold foods" such as mung beans, bean sprouts, or bananas during the first trimester to reduce a risk of miscarriage. As they become more acquainted with the American medical care, they seek prenatal care, accept prenatal vitamins, and follow up with clinic visits. Men do not play a major role during deliveries; female family members provide support. Chinese women want to eat to get energy to go through labor. Hospitals often discourage eating in active labor. When they ask for a drink of water, women are offered ice chips instead of the warm water that they prefer. Most Chinese women will endure thirst for fear the cold water in ice chips will upset their hot/cold balance and increase their risk of developing arthritis in old age. Younger couples are more willing to attend childbirth classes, and fathers are more willing to stay with women in labor to provide support and serve as coaches. After giving birth, care is provided by an elder female relative.

The period of care right after the delivery is known as the sitting month, so resting for approximately one month after delivery is not unusual. Depending on regional differences, women may not leave their homes, take a bath, wash their hair, expose themselves to cold water, cold temperatures and wind, or ingest ice water or cold food, raw vegetables, salads or fruits. It is believed that women are undergoing a cold stage right after delivery due to loss of blood. In order to restore balance, they need to consume foods considered hot, hot water, soups, ginger, wine and food high in protein.

I was surprise to learn about the after delivery care of Chinese women known as the sitting month, and that men did not play a role during deliveries.

Reference

 Medical Chinese, Retrieved from www.ethnomed.org